Expedition of Tabuk

A map showing the route of the expedition.

The Expedition of Tabuk (Arabic: غَزوَة تَبوك; Ghazwat Tabūk), also known as the Campaign of Hardship (Ghazwat al-ʿUsrah), was a military campaign that was initiated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in October 630 CE (Rajab AH 9), in response to reports of a potential Byzantine invasion of northern Arabia. He led a force of as many as 30,000[1][2] north to Tabuk, near the Gulf of Aqaba, in present-day northwestern Saudi Arabia.[2] Although no direct battle occurred, the campaign was significant for asserting Muslim presence in the region and securing strategic alliances.

Background

By the late stage of Muhammad's life, the early Muslims were facing a changing environment in the North. Conflicts with the Byzantines and allied Arab tribes had already shown themselves such as in Mu'tah (629). Even before that, Muhammad had sent a letter to the Byzantine emperor Heraclius inviting him to convert to Islam. [3]

After the Muslim victory at the Battle of Hunayn in the aftermath of the conquest of Mecca, the political landscape of Arabia shifted in favour of the emerging First Islamic state. Reports were received by the Prophet Muhammad that the Byzantine Empire, under Emperor Heraclius, was mobilising troops in the Levant, supported by their Arab Christian client tribes such as the Ghassanids.[4] The North was also dangerously insecure with the presense of many high-way robbers and hostile arab tribes such as the Ghassanids, Kalb, Judham, Lakhm etc. Well before Tabuk, Muhammad had already taken an intrest in combatting these forces as shown with the Expedition of Dumat al-Jandal, Expedition of Khadirah and Expedition of Ukasha bin Al-Mihsan.

According to al-Tabari and many medival Arab Chroniclers, it was believed that Heraclius had stationed a large force at the Balqa (Transjordan Plataeu).[5] Historians differ on the accuracy of these reports. Some modern scholars, however, suggest that this intelligence may have been exaggerated or even unsubstantiated.[6] Fred Donner, for example emphasizes that the expedition was likely a pre-emptive one and one geared towards securing alliances.

Mobilization and march

At this time, Muhammad began to recruit and raise an army - the largest Islam had ever raised by that point. Both Ibn Hisham and Musa bin Uqba mention that the campaign was undertaken during a time of severe heat & ripe harvest, testing the resolve of the Muslim community. The army comprised approximately 30,000 men, including 10,000 cavalry—the largest force yet assembled by the Muslims.[7][8] Companions whether in affluent or straitened circumstances contributed substantial financial and material support to the expedition. [9] On the contrary, there were muslims who were too poor to even participate who are mentioned and pardoned in the Qur'an. [Quran 9:92-93]

Islamic sources emphasize that none voluntarily stayed behind in the expedition except a hypocrite (Munafiq). Examples of this include the story of the 3 who stayed behind [Quran 9:118], a man claimed he couldn't go because he may be tempted by the Byzantine women [10] [Quran 9:118][11], people who advised not to go citing the extreme heat. The Bedouins also had their own excuses which were not accepted.

The army marched northward over 700 km to Tabuk, near the Gulf of Aqaba, close to the modern border of Saudi Arabia and Jordan in October 630 (Rajab AH 9).[2][12] It was his largest and last military expedition.[2] Ali ibn Abi Talib, who participated in several other expeditions of Muhammad, did not participate in Muhammad's Tabuk expedition upon Muhammad's instructions, as he was ordered to care for his family and Medina in Muhammad's absence.[13][14]


Stop at Hegra (al-Hijr)

After a while, the army stopped and excamped on Hegra, a site attached to the Islamic Prophet Salih. The people immediately got to settling down, getting comfortable and doing usually normal activities there. Muhammad then came out saying "Do not drink from its wells nor use it for ablutions (wudu). If you have used any of it for dough, then feed it to the camels and eat none of it. Let none of you go out at night alone but take a companion." [15] He also directed them to drink from the well Salih used to drink from. [16]

At Tabuk

Upon arrival, Muhammad spent twenty days at Tabuk, scouting the area, making alliances with local Christian and Arab tribes, including the rulers of Aylah (modern Aqaba), Jarba, and Adhruh, who agreed to pay jizya in return for protection.[12][17] With no sign of the Byzantine army,[2] he decided to return to Medina.[1] There is no evidence that a Byzantine army was deployed in the region at the time, leading some scholars to conclude that the threat was either misperceived or that the Byzantines withdrew upon learning of Muhammad’s advance.[18] Though Muhammad did not encounter a Byzantine army at Tabuk, according to the Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, "this show of force demonstrated his intention to challenge the Byzantines for control of the northern part of the caravan route from Mecca to Syria".[2]

Return to Medina and aftermath

The expedition ended without combat, but it had lasting consequences. The expedition solidified Muhammad’s leadership and the "Year of Delegations" (631) soon followed with envoys coming from all over Arabia to convert to Islam and ask certain privileges from Muhammad. Muhammad remained at Tabuk for around twenty days before turning back to Medina.[19] On the return, he secured agreements with a number of northern communities, including the governor of Aylah (Aqaba), Yuhanna ibn Ruʾbah, who agreed to pay the jizyah in exchange for protection and freedom to practice Christianity.[20] Similar treaties were reportedly made with tribes such as the Jarbaʾ and Adhruh.[21]

Upon his arrival back in Medina, Muhammad was confronted with the issue of Masjid Ad-Dirar ("Mosque of Sedition") which he went about demolishing.The Qurʾān (9:81–106) records criticism of those who stayed behind without a valid excuse, while also mentioning the repentance of some who later admitted their fault.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b George F. Nafziger; Mark W. Walton (2003), Islam at War: A History, Praeger Publishers, p. 13
  2. ^ a b c d e f Welch, Alford T.; Moussalli, Ahmad S. (2009). "Muḥammad". In Esposito, John L. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5.
  3. ^ Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 653-657. ISBN 9780199260454. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  4. ^ Hitti, Philip K. (1957-04-01). "Muhammad at Medina. By W. Montgomery Watt. (New York: Oxford University Press. 1956. Pp. xiv, 418. $6.75.)". The American Historical Review. 62 (3): 605–606. doi:10.1086/ahr/62.3.605. ISSN 1937-5239.
  5. ^ al-Tabari. Tārīkh al-Rusul wa al-Mulūk [History of the Prophets and Kings]. Translated by Landau-Tasseron. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  6. ^ Crone, Patricia (1983-04-01). "Fred Mcgraw Donner. The Early Islamic Conquests. (Princeton Studies on the Near East.) Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1981. Pp. xviii, 489. $35.00". The American Historical Review. 88 (2): 440–442. doi:10.1086/ahr/88.2.440. ISSN 1937-5239.
  7. ^ Lings, Martin (2006). Muhammad: his life based on the earliest sources. Rochester, Vt: Inner Traditions. p. 309. ISBN 978-1-59477-153-8.
  8. ^ "المغازي لموسى بن عقبة(PDF)" (PDF). Internet Archive.
  9. ^ Ibn Ishaq, Translated by A. Guillaume (2002). Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah - The Life of Muhammad Translated by A. Guillaume. p. 604.
  10. ^ Ibn Ishaq, Translated by A. Guillaume (2002). Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah - The Life of Muhammad Translated by A. Guillaume. p. 603.
  11. ^ Ibn Kathir (2003). Tafsir Ibn Kathir (Abridged). Vol. Part 10 (Surah At-Tawbah). Translated by Jalal Abualrub (2nd ed.). Riyadh: Darussalam Publications. p. 443. ISBN 9781591440208.
  12. ^ a b Richard A. Gabriel (2007), Muhammad: Islam's First Great General, University of Oklahoma Press, p. 197, ISBN 978-0-8061-3860-2
  13. ^ Sachedina, Abdulaziz (2009). "ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib". In Esposito, John L. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5.
  14. ^ Ibn Ishaq, Translated by A. Guillaume (2002). Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah - The Life of Muhammad Translated by A. Guillaume. p. 604.
  15. ^ Ibn Ishaq, Translated by A. Guillaume (2002). Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah - The Life of Muhammad Translated by A. Guillaume. p. 605.
  16. ^ al-Bukhari. "Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, Book 56 (Afflictions), Hadith 3379". Sunnah.com. Retrieved 2025-09-10.
  17. ^ Ibn Sa'd (1967). Kitab Al Tabaqat Al Kabir. Vol. 2. Translator by S. Moinul Haq, H. K. Ghazanfar. p. 203.
  18. ^ Poonawala, Ismail. "Byzantine–Muslim Relations". Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Retrieved 2025-05-23.
  19. ^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah. Oxford University Press. pp. 608–609.
  20. ^ Donner, Fred M. (1981). The Early Islamic Conquests. Princeton University Press. p. 82.
  21. ^ Watts, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. pp. 217–218.

28°23′N 36°35′E / 28.383°N 36.583°E / 28.383; 36.583

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