This is a list of plant species that, when consumed by humans, are known or suspected to produce psychoactive effects: changes in nervous system function that alter perception, mood, consciousness, cognition or behavior. Many of these plants are used intentionally as psychoactive drugs, for medicinal, religious, and/or recreational purposes. Some have been used ritually as entheogens for millennia.[1][2]
The plants are listed according to the specific psychoactive chemical substances they contain; many contain multiple known psychoactive compounds.
Cannabis plants vary widely, with different strains producing dynamic balances of cannabinoids (THC, CBD, etc.) and yielding markedly different effects. Popular strains are often hybrids of C. sativa and C. indica.
The medicinal effects of cannabis are widely studied, and are active topics of research both at universities and private research firms. Many jurisdictions have laws regulating or prohibiting the cultivation, sale and/or use of medical and recreational cannabis.
Many of the psychedelic plants contain dimethyltryptamine (DMT), or other tryptamines, which are either snorted (Virola, Yopo snuffs), vaporized, or drunk with MAOIs (Ayahuasca). It cannot simply be eaten as it is not orally active without an MAOI, and must be extremely concentrated in order to be vaporized.
Acer saccharinum (silver maple) was found to contain the indole alkaloid gramine (not active and extremely toxic) 0.05% in the leaves, so it is possible that other members of this plant family contain active compounds.[3]
Acacia acuminata, Up to 1.5% alkaloids, mainly consisting of dimethyltryptamine in bark & leaf[8] Also, harman, tryptamine, NMT, other alkaloids in leaf.
Acacia complanata, 0.3% alkaloids in leaf and stem, almost all N-methyl-tetrahydroharman, with traces of tetrahydroharman, some of tryptamine[20][21][22]
Acacia confusa, DMT & NMT in leaf, stem & bark 0.04% NMT and 0.02% DMT in stem.[9] Also N,N-dimethyltryptamine N-oxide[23]
Vachellia cornigera, Psychoactive,[6] Tryptamines[24] DMT according to C. Rastch.
Acacia falcata, Psychoactive,[16] but less than 0.02% alkaloids[15]
Vachellia farnesiana, Traces of 5-MeO-DMT[25] in fruit. β-methyl-phenethylamine, flower.[26] Ether extracts about 2–6% of the dried leaf mass.[27] Alkaloids are present in the bark[28] and leaves.[29]
Acacia flavescens, Strongly Psychoactive, Bark
Acacia floribunda, Tryptamine, phenethylamine,[30] in flowers[13] other tryptamines,[31] DMT,tryptamine,NMT 0.3–0.4% phyllodes.[32]
Acacia georginae, Psychoactive,[6] plus deadly toxins
Acacia podalyriifolia, Tryptamine in the leaf,[9] 0.5% to 2% DMT in fresh bark, phenethylamine, trace amounts.[30] Although this species is claimed to contain 0.5% to 2% DMT in fresh bark the reference for this is invalid as there is no reference to Acacia Podalyriffolia anywhere in the reference article. Additionally, well known and proven extraction techniques for DMT have failed to produce any DMT or alkaloids from fresh bark or the leaves on multiple sample taken at various seasons. Should DMT actually exist in this species of Acacia then it exists in extremely small amounts and have failed to produce any alkaloids with Acid/Base extraction techniques using HCl/NaOH. On the same note, more academic research is definitely required into the DMT content of this and other Australian Acacia species with proper chemical analysis of sample.
Senegalia polyacantha, DMT in leaf[9] and other tryptamines in leaf, bark
Senegalia polyacantha ssp. campylacantha, Less than 0.2% DMT in leaf, NMT; DMT and other tryptamines in leaf, bark[40]
Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil – Bufotenin and Dimethyltryptamine have been isolated from the seeds and seed pods, 5-MeO-DMT from the bark of the stems.[46] The seeds were found to contain 12.4% bufotenine, 0.06% 5-MeO-DMT and 0.06% DMT.[47]
Petalostylis casseoides, 0.4–0.5% tryptamine, DMT, etc. in leaves and stems[56]
Petalostylis labicheoides var. casseoides, DMT[6] in leaves and stems; 0.4–0.5% alkaloids in leaves and stems;[62] Tryptamines in leaves and stems, MAO's up to 0.5%[63]
Phyllodium pulchellum(syn. Desmodium pulchellum), DMT;[6] 0.2% 5-MeO-DMT, small quantities of DMT[56] DMT (dominates in seedlings and young plants), 5-MeO-DMT (dominates in mature plant), whole plant, roots, stems, leaves, flowers;
Erythrina flabelliformis, other Erythrina species, seeds contain the alkaloids erysodin and erysovin[64]
None of the above alkaloids are said to have been found in Phalaris californica, Phalaris canariensis, Phalaris minor and hybrids of P. arundinacea together with P. aquatica.[75]
Psychotria carthagenensis, 0.2% average DMT in dried leaves.[79]
Psychotria colorata, Presence of mu opioid receptor(MOR) agonist and NMDA antagonist: hodgkinsine, psychotridine. Also mentioned in The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications.[80]
Euodia leptococca (formerly Melicope), 0.2% total alkaloids, 0.07% 5-MeO-DMT; 5-MeO-DMT in leaves and stems, also "5-MeO-DMT-Oxide and a beta-carboline"[62]
Pilocarpus organensis, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in leaves[85] (Might also contain pilocarpine)
Vepris ampody, up to 0.2% DMT in leaves and branches[56]
Zanthoxylum arborescens, traces of DMT;[6] DMT in leaves
Coryphantha contains various phenethylamine alkaloids including macromerine, coryphanthine, O-methyl-candicine, corypalmine, and N-methyl-corypalmine.[89][90]
Harmaline, a beta-carbolineHarmalol moleculeTHH moleculeApocynum cannabinumCalycanthusKoehElaeagnus angustifoliaFestuca arundinacea
Beta-carbolines are "reversible" MAO-A inhibitors. They are found in some plants used to make Ayahuasca. In high doses the harmala alkaloids are somewhat hallucinogenic on their own. β-carboline is a benzodiazepine receptorinverse agonist and can therefore have convulsive, anxiogenic and memory enhancing effects.[102]
Opiates v opioids with different major subclassifications indicated
Opiates are the natural products of many plants, the most famous and historically relevant of which is Papaver somniferum. Opiates are defined as natural products (or their esters and salts that revert to the natural product in the human body), whereas opioids are defined as semi-synthetic or fully synthetic compounds that trigger the Opioid receptor of the mu sub-type. Other opiate receptors, such as kappa- and delta-opiate receptors are part of this system but do not cause the characteristic behavioral depression and analgesia which is mostly mediated through the mu-opiate receptor.
An opiate, in classical pharmacology, is a substance derived from opium. In more modern usage, the term opioid is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors in the brain (including antagonists). Opiates are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the Papaver somniferum plant (opium poppy). The psychoactive compounds found in the opium plant include morphine, codeine, and thebaine. Opiates have long been used for a variety of medical conditions with evidence of opiate trade and use for pain relief as early as the eighth century AD. Opiates are considered drugs with moderate to high abuse potential and are listed on various "Substance-Control Schedules" under the Uniform Controlled Substances Act of the United States of America.
In 2014, between 13 and 20 million people used opiates recreationally (0.3% to 0.4% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65). According to the CDC, from this population, there were 47,000 deaths, with a total of 500,000 deaths from 2000 to 2014. In 2016, the World Health Organization reported that 27 million people suffer from Opioid use disorder. They also reported that in 2015, 450,000 people died as a result of drug use, with between a third and a half of that number being attributed to opioids.
Papaver somniferum flower and scored capsule with latex.
The plant contains a latex that thickens into opium when it is dried. Opium contains approximately 40 alkaloids, which are summarized as opium alkaloids.[6] The main psychoactive alkaloids are:
Produces vivid dreams after smoking. It is also employed by the Chontal people as a medicinal herb against gastrointestinal disorders, and is used as an appetizer, cathartic anti-dysentery remedy, and as a fever-reducing agent. Its psychedelic properties do not become apparent until the user is asleep. Reports describe rituals that involve drinking it as a tea to induce divinatory or lucid dreams due to its properties as an oneirogen.[129]
Ilex guayusa is used as an additive to some versions of Ayahuasca. According to the Ecuadorian indigenous, it is also slightly hallucinogenic on its own, when drunk in high enough quantities.
Blue lotus or lily. Recent studies have shown Nymphaea caerulea to have psychedelic properties, and may have been used as a sacrament in ancient Egypt and certain ancient South American cultures. Dosages of 5 to 10 grams of the flowers induces slight stimulation, a shift in thought processes, enhanced visual perception, and mild closed-eye visuals.[145]Nymphaea caerulea is unrelated to Nelumbo nucifera the Sacred Lotus, with Nymphaea in the Nymphales, one of the oldest and most basal linegages of flowering plants and with Nelumbo in Proteales one of the core eudicots. Their morphological similarities being entirely convergent evolution, however they apparently have convergently evolved similar biochemistry. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids nuciferine and apomorphine, which have been recently isolated by independent labs.
These psychoactive effects make Nymphaea caerulea a likely candidate (among several) for the lotus plant eaten by the mythical Lotophagi in Homer's Odyssey.
Used in aromatherapy, Nymphaea caerulea is purported to have a "divine" essence, bringing euphoria, heightened awareness and tranquility.
Other sources cite anti-spasmodic and sedative, purifying and calming properties.
S. brasiliensis poisoning is described as very similar to that of Cestrum laevigatum; a species used to induce hallucinations by the Krahô tribe for spiritual purposes.[154][155]
Zornia latifolia is sometimes combined with synthetic cannabis. It may produce similar effects to cannabis.[167][168] It is nicknamed Maconha brava because locals use it as a cannabis substitute.
^Other psychoactive compounds without nitrogen atoms include kavalactones and salvinorins, known from kava and Salvia divinorum, respectively.
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